Who are the RFS Brigade Captains?
As the RFS is predominantly a voluntary organisation it is instructive looking at the occupations of the Brigade Captains. The sample is very diverse, with almost half of the respondents being primary producers (48.4%). Other occupations, which were strongly represented in the sample were retires (22%) and tradesmen (12.6%)(n=512).

Respondents were asked to identify if they were a member of the State Emergency Service or one of the Heritage organisations (table 1). Almost one in five were also member of the State Emergency Service (18.1%) but only a very small number of participants indicated active involvement in historical or heritage organisations through membership to a Historical Society (2.1%) or the National Trust (0.9%).

Knowledge of natural disasters in their shire
As can be expected RFS Brigade Captains nominated fire related disasters as having occurred or likely to occur in their region (Figure 1). Respondents also nominated climatic events such as severe storms (87.2%), drought (81.0%), and flooding (46.6%). Clearly, these responses are strongly coloured by the personal experience of the respondents and the nature of events that were called out to assist. Confirming this, by comparison, salinity was identified by only 21.8% of respondents.

Figure 1: Natural disasters which RFS Brigade Captains (in %) nominated as
having occurred or were likely to occur within their shire.

What constitutes cultural heritage?
RFS Brigade Captains were presented with a list of heritage items and were asked to indicate which of them they regarded as heritage places (table 1). The second part of the table contains those additional items which respondents could nominate themselves. These have been grouped to reflect thematic elements within the data. European orientated heritage received the highest degree of recognition with historic houses (92.5%) followed by cemeteries (82.9%). Industrial heritage was poorly recognised (15.4%), as were power stations with 8.5%. Amongst the sites relating to Indigenous culture, RFS Brigade Captains recognised Aboriginal art sites (70.6%) ahead of Aboriginal occupation sites (55.2%). The conceptual framework represented in the answers shows a high recognition of popular perceptions of heritage (European buildings, cemeteries, Aboriginal art sites) while ethnic minority sites (eg Chinese market gardens) and industrial infrastructure sites are outside the familiarity envelope.

Table 1: Level of recognition for listed and nominated cultural heritage resources by RFS Brigade Captains

Listed on survey	n	%
Historic houses	491	92.5
Historic gardens	356	67.1
Cemeteries	440	82.9
Botanic gardens	212	39.9
Streetscapes	293	55.2
Aboriginal occupation sites	263	49.5
Aboriginal art sites	375	70.6
Chinese market gardens	59	11.1
Shipwrecks	179	33.7
Industrial sites	82	15.4
Power stations	45	8.5
Other	n	%
Depends on selection criteria/recognition framework	1	0.2
Rural landscapes/resources and farming practices	10	1.9
Infrastructure	22	4.1
Artefacts/ruins	1	0.2
Natural features/gardens	20	3.8
Minority heritage	0	0
Art/monuments/documents	7	1.3
Intangible heritage/associations/festivals	7	1.3
Industrial/ land uses	5	0.94
Moveable	7	1.34
Ticked other but did not state	1	0.2

Awareness of formal frameworks for cultural heritage
Government responsibility is distributed across three levels in Australia, heritage places are reflected across all three levels of management. The Commonwealth government deals with items of national significance. State government agencies are concerned with heritage protection at the state and local level through legislative frameworks implemented by various agencies (in NSW the NSW Heritage Office, the Department of Planning, and National Parks and Wildlife Service. The third consists of local government, where heritage of state and local significance is managed through local planning controls. In addition, there is the National Trust, a non-government agency that recognises and lists places of heritage significance. It has no legal power in the protection of places, but projects influence through its reputation.

RFS Brigade Captains were asked whether they were aware of the formal heritage recognition frameworks and whether they could quantify the number of places thus protected. The study showed that only a small percentage of the population were familiar with the formal frameworks for developed cultural heritage. The results indicate that 21.6% of RFS captains were unaware of the Local Environment Plan (LEP) which is used at the local level. State heritage frameworks were also poorly recognised with 22.2% of respondents indicating they had no idea of the number of sites listed for their local area, with 56.4% of respondents choosing not to answer the question. Similar results were also evident for the Register of the National Estate and the National Trust. Of the respondents 15.2% indicated that they were unaware of the number of sites listed under the Register of the National Estate and 64.0% did not respond to this question. Responses to the National Trust were similar, with 21.8% indicating that they did not know and 58.1% not responding.

This low recognition of formal frameworks for cultural heritage protection shows that the Brigade Captains were neither grained in the matter, nor were they closely involved in the protection of heritage places from natural disaster. Joint disaster response planning would have familiarised them with such concepts.

Table 2: Awareness of RFS Brigade Captains of heritage frameworks

	Heritage framework	n	%
Did not know	Local Environmental Plan	115	21.6
	State Heritage List	118	22.2
	Register of the National Estate	81	15.2
	National Trust	116	21.8
Able to list the number of sites	Local Environmental Plan	110	20.7
	State Heritage List	113	21.3
	Register of the National Estate	110	20.7
	National Trust	107	20.2
Non Response	Local Environmental Plan	306	56.4
	State Heritage List	300	56.4
	Register of the National Estate	340	64.0
	National Trust	309	58.1

Perceptions of managerial and disaster threats to cultural heritage
The responses were scored from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) and mean scores as well as standard deviations were calculated. Common to all responses were fairly uniform standard deviations of the magnitude of approximately one full rank (with the notable exception of earthquakes).

RFS Brigade Captains were generally more aware of the threats which natural diasters pose to cultural heritage then the listed managerial issues (Figure 2). Those issues which respondents did not feel were of concern were decay (mean response 2.63), and recreation (mean 2.25). As would be expected RFS respondents identified bushfires as the most prominent natural disaster to pose a threat to cultural heritage resources (mean 4.35). Also acknowledged was the threat which severe storms pose to cultural resources with a mean response of 3.77. The threat that an earthquake could pose demonstrated a low level of concerned with a mean response of 1.84, possible due to the fact that such events are seemingly few and far between.

Figure 2: RFS Brigade Captains perceptions of managerial and natural disaster related threats to
cultural heritage (“In your opinion, to what extent do you see the following issues
as a threat to cultural heritage within your shire?”)

Perceived levels of concern of various stakeholder groups
RFS Brigade Captains regarded all the listed stakeholders as concerned for disaster management involving cultural heritage (Figure 3). Those specialising in heritage matters were perceived to be the most concerned with historical societies ranking first (mean 4.44), followed by local (mean 4.27) and state heritage planners (mean 4.06). Brigade Captains perceived their own organisation (RFS) to be concerned with disaster planning for cultural heritage resources with a mean response of 4.07, which was slightly higher than that for the SES (mean 3.94). Those in local government, on the other hand, were perceived to have low levels of concern for the issue: Elected council representatives scored a mean of 3.78, local council representatives only 3.73. The community as a whole was perceived to have the lowest level of concern (3.52).

Figure 3: Perceived levels of concern of various stakeholder groups
(“In your opinion, what do you believe are the attitudes of the following groups in your shire
to the potential threats to cultural heritage as a result of a natural disaster?”)

Experiences and training
Overall, RFS Brigade Captains felt that the protection of cultural heritage resources was important (mean 4.11). Yet only few members had been involved in natural disaster situations involving cultural heritage (mean 2.84), few had met the heritage officer for their shire and even fewer had been involved in training for such an event (mean 2.06). Respondents indicated a lack of knowledge of cultural heritage resources within their shire (mean 3.23) (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Experiences and training involving cultural heritage in natural disaster situations
(“Please respond to the following assertions in regards to your knowledge of cultural heritage within your shire”)

Disaster planning for cultural heritage
RFS respondents indicated that disaster management plans should be prepared for all cultural assets (mean 3.82), and not just for key heritage assets (mean 3.15). The large standard deviation (1.37), however, highlights a large degree of variation in perceptions. Brigade Captains also indicated strong support (mean 3.99) for the development of strategic plans to address specific approaches to heritage sites in natural disaster situations (Figure 5).

Figure 5: Responses by RFS Brigade Captains to assertions regarding disaster management

A large majority of RFS Brigade Captains (62%) nominated that the development of disaster management plans for cultural heritage resources, should be a combined approach of several agencies rather than by individual elements (Figure 6).

Figure 6: Agencies which RFS Brigade Captains (in %) would like to see involved in the
development of disaster management plans for cultural heritage (multiple responses possible).

Recovery operations for cultural heritage
Recovery operations are important phase in disaster planning for cultural heritage. State government bodies should be involved (51.3%) with assistance provided by Local council (29%), and the National Trust (27.5%). Brigade Captains felt that this responsibility should not lie with property owners (16.9%) or community groups (8.7%). There was a mixed response to the role of other emergency management agencies in recovery operations with 23.5% of Brigade Captains indicating that these agencies should be involved (Figure 7).

Figure 7: Agencies which RFS Brigade Captains (in %) felt should be involved in developing
disaster management plans for cultural heritage (multiple responses possible)

Perceived impacts of natural disasters and their effect on cultural values
Views expressed by Brigade Captains indicate that the loss of a small number of cultural heritage places does not impact on the overall integrity of the shire’s heritage (mean 3.74) (Figure 8). A smaller group perceived that it is more difficult to repair cultural heritage without the loss of significant cultural values (mean 2.91).

Figure 8: Responses by RFS Brigade Captains to assertions how natural disasters affect cultural values.

Communication between heritage managers and disaster managers
While there is a perceived need for communication of emergency and heritage managers to communicate regularly before and during a natural disaster (mean 3.76), there is currently little actual communication between the two (1.69 ) (Figure 9)

Figure 9: Responses by RFS Brigade Captains to assertions regarding
communications between emergency and heritage manager

Funding and disaster management
When it came to an assessment of the costs to society, Brigade Captains believed that the cost of developing and implementing disaster management plans for cultural heritage resources did not outweigh the loss of cultural heritage (mean 2.87) (Figure 10). They also indicated that that their organisation was inadequately funded to deal with natural disaster involving cultural resources (mean 2.25).

Figure 10: Responses by RFS Brigade Captains to assertions regarding funding issues
and disaster management for cultural heritage resources

Disaster management who's responsibility?
Respondents indicated uncertainty whether the protection of cultural heritage resources in natural disaster situations should be the responsibility of paid professionals (mean 3.00). An equal amount of uncertainty was demonstrated in relation to the role of volunteers (mean 3.02). Respondents were unaware of whom to contact if recognised cultural heritage sites were damaged in a natural disaster situation (Figure 11).

Figure 11: Responses by RFS Brigade Captains to assertions regarding the
responsibilities and disaster management for cultural heritage sites

A number of perceptions for disaster planning for NSW Rural Fire Service Brigade Captains were identified in the study. The following discussion raises a number of key findings and their relationship to the broader paradigms of disaster planning for cultural resources.

Knowledge of cultural heritage
Although there is a general awareness of cultural heritage resources, the study indicates that they had not been considered in the context of a disaster situation. For example the occurrence of flooding was acknowledged as a natural disaster which has occurred or is as likely to occur in the respondent’s area. When asked if they considered flooding as a threat to cultural heritage, the response indicated that they did not. The ability to protect cultural heritage during a natural diaster situation, is reliant on the ability to recognise it as such.

Those heritage items respondents were able to recognise as cultural heritage, reflected predominantly European values. Minority and industrial heritage received a much lower level of recognition. This indicates a need to educate the RFS Brigade captains about the diversity of cultural heritage resources. As stated by Spennemann and Look (1998b p. 183) ‘…the sensitivity of disaster managers to the specific needs of cultures other than the dominant Anglo-Saxon European Conglomerate is required.’ The subjective manner in which cultural heritage is identified contributes to the complexity of this problem. Stovel (1998) has also acknowledged a general resilience of risk preparedness professionals to incorporate heritage issues.

Policy and implementation
Each district is required to develop a Bush Fire Management Operations Plan. This document is prepared by the Bush Fire Management Committee and is a legal requirement under the Rural Fires Act 1997. Districts such as the Hume Shire have included a list of cultural heritage sites in their operations plans (NSW RFS Albury Hume District 1998), with the locations of sites included as an appendix. This information was taken directly from the Local Environment Plan, which is a planning tool used to recognise sites of significance. Although this is an excellent source of information for the RFS, it relies on the premise that the information contained within the LEP is up to date and comprehensive.

The ability to assist emergency management agencies understand cultural heritage is reliant on the heritage system being effective. Respondents were asked to indicate the number of heritage items listed under the Local Environment Plan for their Local Government Area. Only 20.7% of respondents could do so, 21.6% of respondents indicated that they had never heard of the LEP or did not know, and 56.4% did not answer the question.

Further commitment to the protection of cultural heritage by the NSW Rural Fire Service is evident through the Environment Service Standard (NSW Rural Fire Service 2001 p. 1-2) which states:

Although this policy acknowledges the need for the consideration of cultural heritage, there is a need to extend this further to include the implementation of these objectives. Very few respondents indicated that they had attended training that dealt with the specific needs of cultural heritage in natural disaster situations. The need for such training is demonstrated by a greater number of Brigade Captains having dealt with such situations.

Due to the top down management structure of the organisation , change needs to begin at the senior level and filter down the ranks to those operating at the local level, as these are the individuals responsible for fire management in their area. The Rural Fire Service acknowledges the value of local knowledge held by their captains, however at times there is a reluctance to share information. The RFS is trying to combat their culture of possessing but not sharing information, so that it may be used for the greater good.

Benefits exist to cultural heritage as sometimes natural and cultural values are inherently linked in the physical composition of the resources, such as a cultural landscape. Some heritage professionals believe that to distinguish between cultural and natural values is artificial (Applin 2002). When people have been adversely effected by the onset of a disaster the ability to identify with ones surrounds is of importance. The ability to identify sometime thing familiar in the landscape has been reported to have positive impacts of the recovery of communities after a disaster. The relationship between a place and identity is often in the historic fabric of a place, that which is the most vulnerable (Look and Spennemann 2000).

Co-ordination
Previous experiences have indicated that natural disasters involving cultural heritage require an enormous amount of co-ordination between agencies (Henry 1991; MacIntosh 2001; Spennemann 1999; Roy 2001). Not only do emergency management agencies seem to have limited interaction with one another, but also this interaction does normally not include heritage managers. The results in a situation in which emergency managers are unaware of the cultural heritage in their area, and the specific needs for its protection. Inversely, emergency managers are not communicating with their emergency managers to understand the impacts which disasters pose to cultural heritage and the frequency and intensity in which they may occur (Graham and Spennemann in press). This places cultural heritage resources in a limbo land, intensifying the risk that cultural heritage may be lost during disaster situations, not only from acts of malice but from a lack of understanding and training (Henry 1991; Spennemann 1999; Spennemann and Look 1998).

Issues relating to Indigenous heritage
The issue of the sensitivity of Indigenous sites was also raised, with many Indigenous communities reluctant to share locational information. There needs to be a balance in regards to the knowledge of the presence and whereabouts of Indigenous sites and their protection. This issue raises involvement of the National Parks and Wildlife service who under the legislative power of the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 are responsible for the protection of indigenous heritage resources. The role of Indigenous communities in such situations was also raised. It may be difficult to know whom to contact. Dealing with Aboriginal sites and disaster situations are no exception, requires knowledge of protocol and the Aboriginal culture (Yalmambirra 2002).

Recent amendments to the National Parks and Wildlife Act 2001 , have raised the question of liability. Under the pervious act (National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974) an individual most of knowingly destroyed an Aboriginal site or resource.

Under the National Parks and Wildlife Amendment Act 2001, this element of intent has since been removed. This places the RFS in a difficult situation. Steps need to be taken to ensure that that bushfire do not damage Aboriginal heritage sites. Also this is reflected in the service standards, and needs to be implemented.

Transfer of knowledge
It is essential that knowledge and basic skills be developed for RFS members. Disaster situations may require that members attended situations outside of their local area. For this reason it is important to develop training which provides members with the necessary skills to identify items of possible heritage significance. During the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction a series of web conferences were held to facilitate cross communication between a number of heritage and emergency management personnel (United Nations-International Decade for National Disaster Reduction 1996) the same principles could be applied here. Spennemann and Green (1998) have raised the possibility of developing special interest networks. The RFS is in the early stage of developing and utilising GIS technology.

At present the program is generally used for the identification of vegetation types. The possibility of incorporating a similar system for cultural heritage was acknowledged. This was acknowledged by the RFS, however the funds for doing so are limited. GIS has been used successfully in the past to identify places of significance through the mapping of sites. Such exercises have been completed at Cape York Peninsula (Abrahams et al 1995), Quebec City (Moss Simoneau and Fiset 1998), Iowa (Artz, Martur and Doershuk 1998).

Where do we go from here?
The investigation of these perceptional barriers indicates that there are a number of obstacles for effective disaster planning for cultural heritage. This problem not only exists in Australia, but also is a worldwide issue (Stovel 1998). Until these issues are addressed cultural heritage will continually be at risk not only from the impacts of natural disasters but also from poorly informed decisions. The development of policies for the protection of cultural heritage by the New South Wales Rural Fire Service is a positive step. The actioning of these policies through training and specific planning will assist to ensure that we are all doing our part to protect the past for our future.

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Legislation
Rural Fires Act 1997 (NSW)
National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 (NSW)
National Parks and Wildlife Amendment Act 2001 (NSW)